Access to American Cultural Heritages:
A Study Guide to Issues of Representation, Delivery and Control

This guide is based on materials assembled by Michael Buckland for his course on Access to American Cultural Heritages, taught at the School of Information Management and Systems, University of California, Berkeley. The sources cited were selected, organized, and reviewed by Janice Woo, who also wrote the accompanying narrative text. Thanks go to Linda Cathryn Everstz, who assisted with copy editing; and to Lisa Schiff, for her invaluable insight and feedback on the issues being presented. Partial support for this project was provided through a campus Undergraduate Teaching Excellence Instructional Minigrant, awarded to Michael Buckland for academic year 1997-98. (June 1998)

Table of Contents

Introduction
Scope and Arrangement

PART 1. Background Concepts: Culture and Cultural Groups

Topic I: CULTURE

A. The Material Side of Culture

§1. Material culture and folklore
§2. Popular culture
§3. High culture or the fine arts

B. The Non-material Side of Culture

§4. Language and culture
§5. Belief systems

Topic II: CULTURAL GROUPS AND GROUPINGS

§6. Race and ethnicity
§7. Nationality
§8. Gender and sexual orientation
§9. Religious groups
§10. Class/Social status
§11. Minorities and subcultures
§12. Pluralism and multiculturalism
§13. Information on specific groups

PART 2. Information Access: Issues of Representation and Control

Topic III. INTELLECTUAL ACCESS ISSUES: REPRESENTATION OF CULTURE AND CULTURAL HERITAGES

A. Representations of Self and Others

§14. Language as a means of representation
§15. Representation through personal practices
§16.Representation through public performances

B. Institutional Representations

§17. Museums
§18. Libraries and archives
§19. Educational institutions

§20. Other social and cultural institutions

C. Representation via the Media

§21. Mass media in general
§22. Journalism
§23. Advertising

D. Representation Through the Lens of History

§24. Historiography
§25. Oral history
§26. Historic preservation

Topic IV. PHYSICAL ACCESS ISSUES: CONTROL AND DELIVERY OF CULTURE AND CULTURAL HERITAGES

§27. Legal issues
§28. Economic issues
§29. Technological issues
§30. Public policy issues

Introduction

This guide provides basic information sources for beginning research into issues relating to access to American cultural heritages. The term access is used here in two senses: intellectual access and physical access. Intellectual access concerns issues of representation or content; that is, the ways in which cultural heritages are constituted and communicated. Physical access deals with issues of delivery and control; that is, how the development and transmission of cultural heritages are regulated and maintained. (As a footnote, the dichotomy between intellectual and physical access finds its roots in the practices of traditional librarianship, where, for instance, assigning subject headings in catalogs provides intellectual access, whereas making sure books are properly shelved provides physical access.) In both senses, moreover, we are talking about access to information and information sources. As it pertains to this guide, the information to be accessed is information about American cultural heritages, hence the topic of our investigations -- "Access to American Cultural Heritages." (For more on information access, see chapter 8 of Information and Information Systems, by Michael Buckland (1991).)

The use of the term cultural heritages is to be understood in a broad and loosely defined sense. As an object of study, the concept of cultural heritages will take on a more precise meaning in relation to the particular focus of the research you are undertaking. At the outset, however, it will be helpful to outline some of the notions involved. These include preservation of the past, concrete and abstract means of transmitting and understanding the past, and the ongoing creation and development of what comes to be constituted as heritage. The concept of cultural heritages can be interpreted both as object and as process; one can explore what cultural heritages are as well as what cultural heritages do.

Strictly speaking, heritage refers to that which is inherited from one's ancestors, usually by birthright. It generally connotes something concrete, such as property, or at least something static in quality that is capable of being passed down through time. A current usage can be found in reference to historic sites and edifices which are being preserved for a nation's future generations. In the earlier part of this century, a number of anthropologists used the term social heritage as a synonym for an historical approach to culture. For them, this sense of the term was very similar to the concept of tradition. (See Culture: a Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, by A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhorn (1963) p.92-93)

Originally, tradition meant to surrender or hand something over. Today, we still use the word traditional to describe the way things have been in the past. Unlike heritage, however, tradition more commonly refers to the continuation of customs and practices rather than to the passing down of physical items. Tradition also differs from the standard notion of heritage in that what constitutes it is more fluid and less fixed; in the last several decades it has come to include not only the transmission of long standing and well-established customs but also the conveyance of contemporary cultural patterns and practices as they continue to evolve over time. (Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert Winthrop (1991) p. 300-304)

Both tradition and heritage carry a positive connotation of value and worth. They are in part defined by the uses and purposes to which they are put. That is, something becomes cultural heritage by virtue of its ability to transmit some aspect of the culture that it represents. This raises an important question concerning who determines what will be handed down and why.

For the purposes of this guide, cultural heritages encompasses a large and expansive domain: Cultural heritages are developed in the past, but they are not set in stone; they are transmitted to ensuing generations, but not necessarily as a function of genetic or social inheritance; they are constituted by ideas and practices as well as by concrete artifacts; and they are shaped and formed by the goals of the cultures that produce and reproduce them. In brief, any aspect of culture that can be handed down could be constitutive of cultural heritage. Whether or not something counts as cultural heritage will depend on the focus and framework of how it is being studied..

• For definitions of tradition, see Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997); Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991); and Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986)
• For references to the concept of social heritage, see Culture: a Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, by A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn (1963), p.89-94
• For a discussion of the notion of invented tradition, see the introduction to The Invention of Tradition, edited by Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger (1983)

The materials selected for inclusion in this guide are for the most part tertiary sources, that is, reference works such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, guides to the literature, and self-contained bibliographies. They are intended to provide one with a quick entrée into areas that may not have been previously encountered. Some introductory surveys and monographs have also been included for initial orientation. Directories, abstracting services, and periodical indexes are not included, but can be identified through other sources that are included. All sources are in English. Within each section, the citations are arranged in reverse chronological order and secondarily by title.

A selection of Library of Congress subject headings have been provided for further research. These headings have been chosen because they will direct one to relevant materials listed in the University of California MELVYL system. In other library catalogs, these headings may or may not be equally fruitful for locating pertinent material.

The guide includes only printed sources. Online and internet sources can be explored via library web sites. The UC Berkeley Library's site is www.lib.berkeley.edu. It provides links to internet resources that are organized by both academic discipline and by reference resource genre. Another site that includes many electronic reference works and texts is the Internet Public Library at www.ipl.org. Other electronic catalogs and indexes to printed materials can also be accessed via various library workstations and terminals.

Part 1.
Background Concepts: Culture and Cultural Groups

To situate the issues surrounding access to American cultural heritages, the introduction of some foundational concepts will provide a helpful background. In this regard, the concept of culture is key. What is the relationship between culture and cultural heritage? If they are to be differentiated, what role does culture play in the development of cultural heritage, and vice versa? What constitutes culture and what are its manifestations? As will be seen, these can be both material and abstract in form. Further, the cultural patterns that promote continuity with the past are reflective of particular ways of thinking, and this too must be taken into consideration.

A second key concept is the notion of groupingsor social structure. Unlike a simple inheritance, cultural heritage cannot be transmitted on a purely individual basis. It is conveyed from groups to groups, though there are, of course, individuals comprising those groups. What comprises culture and cultural heritage is conditional on what is relevant for the groups in question. Because the United States is a heterogeneous society, there are many ways in which groups come into formation, though race and ethnicity are often the primary factors. What distinguishes one group from another is, simply put, difference. Less simply, these are differences within a complex of overlapping qualities and characteristics, and on this account, no one is ever a member of just a single group. This shifting of group boundaries and membership has a significant impact on how one views a particular culture or cultural heritage.

The following sections provide tools and sources for gaining an introductory understanding of the background concepts. For a general overview of the cultural terrain, there are a number of multivolume encyclopedia sets that offer discussions on many of these topics. The perspective of each will vary somewhat according to disciplinary focus, e.g. anthropology, cultural studies, social history, or sociology. Some other areas of cultural study that are not featured in this guide include human geography, industrial archaeology, public history, and social psychology.

• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996)
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994)
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993)
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992)
• International Encyclopedia of Communication, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989)
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, edited by Philip P. Weiner (1973)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968)

TOPIC I: CULTURE

Culture is an important concept due to its power to shape and be shaped by cultural heritage. It is, however, a problematic term to deal with.

As Raymond Williams states in an often cited quote,

Culture is one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language. This is so partly because of its intricate historical development, in several European languages, but mainly because it has now come to be used for important concepts in several distinct intellectual disciplines and in several distinct and incompatible systems of thought. (Keywords, by Raymond Williams (1983) p.87)

John Hartley has also described culture as

Multi-discursive... This means you cannot import a fixed definition into any and every context and expect it to make sense. What you have to do is identify the discursive context itself. [And] if you are planning to use the term culture as an analytical concept, or if you encounter its use, it is unlikely that you will ever be able to fix on just one definition that will do for all such occasions. (Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan et al. (1994) p.68)

Nevertheless, one of the more all encompassing definitions is a good starting off point. It was written by Sanford Winston and follows from the interpretation laid out by Edward B. Tylor in his Primitive Culture, written in 1871. On this view,

Culture may be considered as the totality of material and non-material traits, together with their associated behavior patterns, plus the language uses which a society possesses. (Culture and Human Behavior, by Sanford Winston (1933) p.25)

In other words, any human activity has the potential to be constitutive of culture. What constrains these possibilites and determines the particular meaning of the concept is, as noted above, the context in which it is used.

Definitions and discussions of the term culture may be found in the following reference works as well as in the multivolume encyclopedia sets cited above.

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996)
• Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, edited by Ellis Cashmore. 4th ed. (1996)
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996)
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996)
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994)
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991)
• A Critical Dictionary of Sociology, by Raymond Boudon and Francois Bourricaud; selected and translated by Peter Hamilton (1989)
• Dictionary of Concepts in History, by Harry Ritter (1986)
• Keywords: a Vocabulary of Culture and Society, by Raymond Williams. Rev. ed. (1983)

Reference and bibliographic sources

Bibliographic guides to publications relating to culture are useful for finding basic materials, but may not be up-to-date. Examples include:

• American Studies: a Guide to Information Sources, by David W. Marcell (1982)
• U.S. Cultural History: a Guide to Information Sources, by Philip I. Mitterling (1980)
• Social History of the United States: a Guide to Information Sources, by Donald F. Tingley (1979)

A thorough discussion of how the term culture has been used in modern times up to about 1950 is provided by the classification and analysis of definitions compiled by Kroeber and Kluckhohn in

• Culture: a Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, by A.L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn (1963); first published in Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology 42:1 (1952)

An introduction to some of the key figures in the development of the study of culture can be found in

• Creating Culture: Profiles in the Study of Culture, edited by Diane J. Austin-Broos (1987)

An overview of many aspects of culture can be found in Part II of

• Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology, edited by Tim Ingold (1994)

For an analysis and summary (excerpt below) of The Interpretation of Cultures, by Clifford Geertz (1973), see

• Masterplots II. Nonfiction series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1989)

In The Interpretation of Cultures Geertz aims at a definition of culture and what it means to the practice of a cultural anthropologist. He explains that "culture is not a power, something to which social events, behaviors, institutions, or pro cesses can be causally attributed." Culture, in other words, does not determine human behavior, whether conscious or unconscious. Culture, on the contrary, "is a context, something within which [social events, behaviors, institutions, or processes] can be intelligibly -- that is, thickly -- described." It gives meaning to individual acts, a yardstick against which they can be interpreted and judged. Therefore, the practice of cultural anthropology, the analysis of culture, is "not an experimental scie nce in search of law but an interpretative one in search of meaning..." Geertz, in short, concentrates on the social conventions of human behavior. -- Christopher L. Picard (p.748-749)

Library of Congress subject headings

• Searching under the keyword CULTURE or a phrase beginning with CULTURE will retrieve many, many items. Search under the exact subject heading "CULTURE" (without subheadings) or use the narrower terms listed under CULTURE in the Library of Congress Su bject Headings list.

One way of exploring cultural heritage is through the material aspects or components of cultures. These are for the most part physical objects and artifacts but may also include less tangible forms, such as music and literature, as well as ephemer al occurrences, such as performing arts, activities, and practices. The following designations are common but arbitrary ways of characterizing various types of culture.

Material culture concerns the artifacts that people have made and that are reflective of some aspect of their culture. Technically, the term could refer to any man-made object, but customarily it is used to refer to commonplace, everyday artifa cts and constructions. It is often the product of practices and customs known as folklore or folkways. According to Roger D. Abraham's essay in the Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups,

The term folklore commonly refers to ways of talking, interacting, and performing [but] refers also to games, rituals, festivals, foods, health practices and beliefs, traditional crafts, and occupations. (Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Grou ps, edited by Stephan Thernstrom (1980) p.370-371)

The things that are used for or are derived from these practices can all be elements of material culture. The study of material culture grew out of the field of archaeology in which the analysis of objects provides insights into the culture that produ ced them.

Definitions and discussions

• Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997); entries on Folklife; Material culture
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entries on Folklore; Material culture
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entry on Material culture
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entry under Culture: material and expressive culture
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); section on Material culture studies
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991); entry on Custom
• Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986); entries on Custom; Folkways
• Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Stephan Thernstrom (1980); thematic essay on Folklore

Reference and bibliographic sources

• Knowledge and Society, v.10 (1996); volume on Research in Science and Technology Studies: Material Culture
• Folklore and Folklife: a Guide to English-language Reference Sources, by Susan Steinfirst (1992)
• The Emergence of Folklore in Everyday Life: a Fieldguide and Sourcebook, edited by George H. Schoemaker (1990)
• Material Culture: a Research Guide, by Thomas J. Schlereth (1985)
• Folklore: a Study and Research Guide, by Jan Harold Brunvand (1976)

Library of Congress subject headings

• CULTURE -- SEMIOTIC MODELS
• "MATERIAL CULTURE" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
  Used for publications "on the objects made or used by people, especially the folk artifacts produced by traditional methods, as well as techniques of their production... Works on the material culture of particular ethnic groups are entered under the name of the group with the subdivision MATERIAL CULTURE" (LCSH)
• MATERIAL CULTURE--UNITED STATES
• See also the narrow terms listed under MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
  Used for "general works on folkways, customs, ceremonies, festivals, popular traditions, etc., treated collectively" (LCSH)
• Also search under terms for specific objects and artifacts

The term popular culture has a number of connotations, but generally it can be used in reference to mainstream aspects of culture that are partaken of by a mass audience. Many of these aspects pertain to entertainment and include television , film, popular forms of music and dance, "non-literary" literature, as well as sports and leisure-oriented activities. It is an open question as to who determines what becomes popular culture; does it arise from within the populace or is it imposed upon them by some external institution? In either case, the products of popular culture can communicate information about cultures, both past and present, but are always indicative of the point of view of whoever created the particular product. Related conc epts are mass culture, which pertains to the cultural products of urban industrial society, and folk culture, which is used for preindustrial cultures.

Definitions and discussions

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996)
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996)
• Encyclopedia of Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns (1994)
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994)
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992)

A definition of folk culture may be found in

• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991)

Reference and bibliographic sources

• American Popular Culture: a Guide to the Reference Literature, by Frank W. Hoffman (1995)
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); Part X: Popular culture and recreation
• Handbook of American Popular Culture, edited by M. Thomas Inge. 2nd ed. (1989)
• Handbook of American Popular Literature, edited by M. Thomas Inge (1988)
• American Popular Culture: a Historical Bibliography, edited by Arthur Frank Wertheim (1984)
• American Popular Culture: a Guide to Information Sources, by Larry N. Landrum (1982)

Library of Congress subject headings

• "POPULAR CULTURE" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
  Used for "works on literature, art, music, motion pictures, etc. produced for a mass audience. General works on learning and scholarship, literature, the arts, etc. are entered under INTELLECTUAL LIFE." (LCSH) See also the narrower terms listed under thi s heading
• POPULAR CULTURE--UNITED STATES
• See also headings for particular mediums and formats

§3. High culture or the fine arts

Those aspects of culture that are considered elite or individualistic are often contrasted with popular culture and are termed high culture or of the fine arts. Although this distinction is quite fluid, some of the artistic forms that ha ve been associated with high culture include symphonic and chamber music, opera, ballet, painting and sculpture, literary works, and public architecture. High culture reflects the established and dominant segments of a society and has been extensively ut ilized to transmit many aspects of cultural heritage.

Definitions and discussions

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entry on High culture
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entry on High culture versus popular culture
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Taste cultures
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Art and society

Reference and bibliographic sources

• The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, edited by H. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie (1986)
• Arts in America: a Bibliography, edited by Bernard Karpel (1979)
• Literary History of the United States, edited by Robert E. Spiller et al. 4th ed. (1974)

Library of Congress subject headings

There is no single heading uncompassing the notion of high culture. Use the following headings with the subheading UNITED STATES; also see the narrower terms listed under each.

• ARCHITECTURE
  Used for "works on the design and style of structures... This heading is subdivided by place for works on architecture indigenous to the place named, e.g. Architecture--United States. The heading is qualified by a national qualifier for works on archi tecture of the type named in the qualifier but located in other places, e.g. Architecture, American--India" (LCSH)
• ART
  Used for "general works on the visual arts. Works on the arts in general, including the visual arts, literature, and the performing arts, are entered under ARTS" (LCSH)
• ARTS
  Used for "works on the arts in general, including the visual arts, literature, and the performing arts. General works on the visual arts are entered under ART" (LCSH)
• LITERATURE
  Used for "works dealing with literature in general, not limited to aesthetics, philosophy, history or any one aspect" (LCSH)
• MUSIC
  "For works consisting of music of an individual ethnic group, additional subject entry is made under the heading Ethnic group-- Place--MUSIC" (LCSH)

B. THE NON-MATERIAL SIDE OF CULTURE

One way of characterizing the non-material aspects of culture would be to describe them as metaphysical; that is, they are abstractions or mental conceptualizations as opposed to physical manifestations. In order to discuss them, however, these abstra ct entities will need to be concretized and evidenced through some kind of artifact or material sign. Loosely speaking, the concern here is more with the content than with the accompanying form or medium. Two primary examples of the non-material side of culture are language and belief systems. These are structures that have dual directionality in terms of determining cultural heritage; they can be used to transmit or pass down a current culture, and they can also be used to reconstruct a version of the past.

§4. Language and culture

Language and culture are considered to be very closely interrelated. Language, in some form, is the primary means by which culture and cultural heritage get transmitted. In its broadest sense, language includes both verbal and nonverbal communication as well as the meaning or semiotics of anything occurring in the physical environment. More commonly, it is used to designate only the intentional communicative productions of human beings, e.g. speaking, writing, gesturing, and other signaling systems. Languages are also a way in which cultural groups differentiate themselves. According to Jean DeBernardi,

language use shapes the formation of the conceptual systems shared by speakers of a language, and at the same time constitutes diverse social identities in interaction... Language is profoundly social, and language use both constitutes shared worlds a nd realizes social diversity in practice. (Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology, edited by Tim Ingold (1994) p.883)

Definitions and discussions

• Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, edited by Ellis Cashmore. 4th ed. (1996)
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Sociolinguistics
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996)
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994)
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994)
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968)

In addition to the entry on Language in the above works, see also the entries on Communication; Ethnography of speaking; Sapir-Whorf hypothesis; and Sociolinguistics.

Reference and bibliographic sources

• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); in particular the entry on Language in sociocultural context
• International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, edited by William Bright (1991-92)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989)

Library of Congress subject headings

• LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
• SOCIOLINGUISTICS--UNITED STATES
• See also the narrow terms listed under LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES as well as the subheading LANGUAGE under names of classes of persons, disciplines, countries, cities, etc., and under ethnic groups.

§5. Belief systems

Belief system is a shorthand way of referring to any way in which a culture collectively constructs a model or framework for how it thinks about something. A religion is a particular kind of belief system, while more general forms include ideologies, world-views, paradigms, and epistemes. World-view derives from the German word Weltanschauung. A related term is the German word Zeitgeist, loosely translated as "spirit of the time" and used to characterize the sensibility of a time perio d. In addition to governing almost all aspects of human activity, belief systems have a significant impact on what a culture deems worthy of passing down as its cultural heritage and on what it construes as the cultural heritage of other cultures.

Most people today recognize that there is no one correct belief system or way of thinking. This way of thinking is in itself indicative of the notion known as relativism or conceptual relativism. This contrasts with objectivism a nd essentialism, both of which posit a reality that is independent of the way in which people conceptualize. A plurality of belief systems is a hallmark of postmodernism, which has been characterized as "the sensibility that arises when the credibility of the 'master narratives' is questioned." (Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992) p.1523)

Definitions and discussions

• Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997); entries on Cultural relativism; Postmodernism; Worldview
• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entries on Ideology; Episteme; Paradigm; Postmodernism
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entries on Belief systems; Cultural relativism; Postmodernism; Worldview
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996); entries on Classification; Essentialism; Postmodernism; Relativism
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entry on Post-modernism
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994): entries on Conceptual systems; Ideology; Sociology of knowledge
• Ethnic Relations: a Cross-cultural Encyclopedia, by David Levinson (1994); entry on Cultural relativism
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entries on Ideology; Objectivity; Postmodernism; Worldview
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entry on Civil religion and politics
• Encyclopedia of Sociology edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entries on Paradigms and models; Postmodernism; Religious orientations
• International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, edited by William Bright (1992); entry on World view and language
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991); entries on Relativism; World view
• A Critical Dictionary of Sociology, by Raymond Boudon and Francois Bourricaud; selected and translated by Peter Hamilton (1989); entries on Beliefs; Ideology; Knowledge
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Ideology; Classification
• Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986); entries on Cultural relativism; World view
• Dictionary of Concepts in History, by Harry Ritter (1986); entries on Ideology; Objectivity; Relativism; Zeitgeist
• Keywords: a Vocabulary of Culture and Society, by Raymond Williams. Rev. ed. (1983); entry on Ideology
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, edited by Philip P. Weiner (1973); entries on Ideology; Volksgeist; Zeitgeist
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entries on Ideology; World view

Reference and bibliographic sources

Summaries and analyses of three books having to do with particular forms of belief systems can be found in

• Masterplots II. Nonfiction series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1989)

  The Order of Things: an Archaeology of the Human Sciences, by Michel Foucault (1966)
  At the core of Foucault's analysis of the human sciences is his concept of the episteme. The episteme comprises the fundamental assumptions of a culture, both explicit and unspoken, that determine the "epistemological field" in which all kn owledge must find its place. -- Karin A. Wurst (p.1099)

  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, by Thomas S. Kuhn (1962)
  For Kuhn, the term "paradigm" refers to a situation in which all the currently known information in a field is accessible, suitable lines of investigation to extend that knowledge are recognized, and a collection of laws, theory, applications, and instrum entation constituting a "model" are accepted.-- Katherine R. Sopka (p.1454)

  The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: a Study in Religious Sociology, by Emile Durkheim (1912)
  Durkheim believed that social organizations were based on religious foundations... In fact, Durkheim went so far as to argue that the fundamental categories of thought had their origins in religious beliefs and practices... Religion is a social activity which does promote social cohesion, especially in tribal, homogeneous societies, and there is considerable evidence that religious beliefs and practices have often had an impact on the development of other cultural institutions. -- Thomas T. Lewis (p.443, 446, 448)

Library of Congress subject headings

• CATEGORIZATION (PSYCHOLOGY)
• CULTURAL RELATIVISM
• IDEOLOGY
• KNOWLEDGE, SOCIOLOGY OF
• OBJECTIVITY
• PARADIGMS (SOCIAL SCIENCES)
• POSTMODERNISM--SOCIAL ASPECTS
• RELIGION AND CULTURE

TOPIC II: CULTURAL GROUPS AND GROUPINGS

The notion of group in a cultural text refers to a bounded social unit. People within the bounded unit are insiders, and people who are not are outsiders. Some major categories for grouping people together are race and ethnicity, nationality, gender and sexual orientation, religious affiliation, and social class. Others include age, regionality, occupation, disabilities, and what is known as social deviance. Some groups are defined by fixed or stable characteristics like gender, while others are open to a changing membership as with proselytizing religions. What distinguishes one group from another is the differences it exhibits from others in the same category. Within any society there will be many categories or types of groups, and someo ne in a group defined by one category may also be part of a group in another category. This means that no one is ever a member of just one cultural group. Although difficult to quantify, there is some point of critical mass that is needed to constitute a cultural group. Smaller groups that can be characterized by distinct cultural attributes are called subcultures or minorities. Both are contrasted with the larger dominant culture that contains them.

While the distinctive characteristics of each group contribute to the definition of its culture, the shifting boundaries and intersections of groupings makes correlating groups with particular cultural traits a complex matter. Furthermore, the product ion of cultural heritage may not be solely an outgrowth of the relevant group; other groups external to it may have had a hand in casting its form as well. Clarification of these relationships will be advanced by specifying the purpose and context for th e research or investigation being undertaken.

Discussions on the concept of group may be found in the following.

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996)
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996)
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994)
• A Critical Dictionary of Sociology, by Raymond Boudon and Francois Bourricaud; selected and translated by Peter Hamilton (1989)

• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968)

Designating people in terms of race or ethnicity can be problematic because neither concept has definitive application. Nevertheless, groups and cultures continue to be routinely described according to these categories.

Definitions and discussions

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entries on Ethnicity; Race and racism
• Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, edited by Ellis Cashmore. 4th ed. (1996); entries on Ethnicity; Race
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Ethnicity
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996); entries on Ethnicity; Race
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entries on Ethnicity; Race
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); entry on Ethnicity
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entries on Ethnicity; Race
• Encyclopedia of Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns (1994); entry on Ethnicity
• Ethnic Relations: a Cross-cultural Encyclopedia, by David Levinson (1994); entry on Race and racism
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entries on Ethnic; Race
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entries on Ethnicity and ethnic groups; Race and racial groups
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essays on Ethnicity; Race
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entries on Ethnicity; Race
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991); entries on Ethnicity; Race
• Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986); entries on Ethnic group; Ethnicity; Race
• Dictionary of Concepts in History, by Harry Ritter (1986); entry on Race, racism, racialism
• Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Stephan Thernstrom (1980); thematic essay on Concepts of ethnicity
• International Encyclopedia of Social Science, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entries on Ethnic groups; Race

Reference and bibliographic sources

• Racism in Contemporary America, compiled by Meyer Weinberg (1996)
• Race and Ethnic Relations: an Annotated Bibliography, by Graham C. Kinloch (1984)
• Ethnicity and Nationality: a Bibliographic Guide, by G. Carter Bentley (1981)
• Bibliography of American Ethnology, edited by Marc Cashman (1976)

Library of Congress subject headings

• "ETHNICITY" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
• ETHNICITY--UNITED STATES
• "RACE" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
• RACE--HISTORY
• UNITED STATES--ETHNIC RELATIONS
• UNITED STATES--RACE RELATIONS

When studying the cultural heritage of people in the United States, one encounters not only aspects of the nationality called "American", but also those nationalities that are the product of immigrations, diasporas, and colonialization. These are the groups of so-called hyphenated Americans, e.g. (British)-Americans, German-Americans, or Mexican-Americans. Each of these various groups contributes to the development of what becomes American cultural heritages. Though people are frequently referenced in terms of their nationalities, the application of this concept to cultural characteristics is not clear-cut and needs to reflect a fair amount of subtly and complexity.

Definitions and discussions

• Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, edited by Ellis Cashmore. 4th ed. (1996); entry on Nationalism
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entries Modal personality and national character; National culture; Nationalism
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996); entry on Nationalism
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); entry on National language
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entry on Nationalism--American
• Ethnic Relations: a Cross-cultural Encyclopedia, by David Levinson (1994); entry on Ethnic nationalism
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entry on Nation
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entry on Nationalism
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on National character
• Dictionary of Concepts in History, by Harry Ritter (1986); entry on Nation, nationality

Reference and bibliographic sources

• Encyclopedia of Nationalism, by Louis L. Snyder (1990)

Library of Congress subject headings

• "NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
• NATIONALISM--UNITED STATES

Practices and characteristics associated with being male and/or female as well as with sexual orientation toward males and/or females have become significant aspects of cultural study during the last several decades. This type of group categorizat ion has more defined boundaries than many others.

Definitions and discussions

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entry on Gender
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entries on Gender difference and role; Sexual orientation
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996); entry on Gender
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entry on Gender and sex
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entry on Gender
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entries on Gender socialization; Sexual orientation, theories of
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essays on Gender; Sexual orientation
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entries on Gender; Sexual orientation
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991); entry on Gender
• International Encyclopedia of Communicationz, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Gender
• Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986); entry on Gender
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, edited by Philip P. Weiner (1973); entry on Women, social attitudes toward

Reference and bibliographic sources

• Women's Issues, edited by Margaret McFadden (1997)
• The Dictionary of Feminist Theory, by Maggie Humm. 2nd ed. (1995)
• The New Men's Studies: a Selected and Annotated Interdisciplinary Bibliography, by Ernest R. August. 2nd ed. (1994)
• Women, Race, and Ethnicity: a Bibliography, edited by Susan Searing and Linda Shult (1991)
• Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, edited by Wayne R. Dynes (1990)
• Women's Studies: a Guide to Information Sources, by Sarah Carter and Maureen Ritchie (1990)
• Women's Studies Encyclopedia, edited by Helen Tierney (1989-1991)
• Homosexuality: a Research Guide, by Wayne R. Dynes (1987)
• Women in Popular Culture: a Reference Guide, by Katherine Fishburn (1982)

• "BISEXUALITY" (as exact subject heading without subheading)
• GAYS--UNITED STATES--IDENTITY
• GENDER IDENTITY--UNITED STATES
• "HETEROSEXUALTY" (as exact subject heading without subheading)
• HETEROSEXUALITY--UNITED STATES
• "HOMOSEXUALITY" (as exact subject heading without subheading)
• HOMOSEXUALITY--UNITED STATES
• LESBIANS--UNITED STATES--IDENTITY
• MEN'S STUDIES
• SEXUAL ORIENTATION
• WOMEN--UNITED STATES--HISTORY
• WOMEN--UNITED STATES-IDENTITY

Religious affiliation is a significant cultural determiner because of its impact on people's ideologies or world-views. It also forms the basis of some fairly discrete communities or groupings.

• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Religion
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entry on Sociology of religion
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essay on Religion
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entries on Religious orientation; World religions
• Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology, by Robert H. Winthrop (1991); entry on Religion

• Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, edited by William H. Swatos, Jr. (1997)
• Encyclopedia of American Religions, by Gordon J. Melton. 4th ed. (1993)
• An Encyclopedia of Religions in the United States: One Hundred Religious Groups Speak for Themselves, edited by William B. Williamson (1992)
• Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience: Studies of Traditions and Movements, edited by Charles H. Lippy and Peter W. Willilams. (1988)
• Religion and Society in North America: an Annotated Bibliography , edited by Robert deV. Brunkow (1983)

• RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS--UNITED STATES
• SECTS--UNITED STATES
• UNITED STATES--RELIGION

In general, the notion of class has to do with one's position on the economic or social ladder. Culturally speaking, class division within the United States tends to be a matter of the elite versus the masses. It manifests in who has the means to direct cultural production and dissemination. For example, though the masses may have their popular culture, it is generally believed that they are given what they want by a select group of "taste-makers" rather than having a hand in creating it themsel ves. However, there is also the so-called street culture, which is created by the lower and under classes, but often appropriated by the cultural elite and by the mainstream.

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entry on Class
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Social stratification
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996); entry on Class
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entry on Class, social
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); entry on Social class
• Encyclopedia of Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns (1994); entry on Class
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entries on Class/social class; Stratification/social stratification
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entries on Class consciousness and class conflict; Social stratification
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essay on Class
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entries on Class and race; Societal stratification
• Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986); entries on Class, social; Stratification
• Dictionary of Concepts in History, by Harry Ritter (1986); entry on Class
• Keywords: a Vocabulary of Culture and Society, by Raymond Williams. Rev. ed. (1983); entry on Class
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, edited by Philip P. Weiner (1973); entry on Class
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Stratification, social

Reference and bibliographic sources

• Bridging the Gap: Examining Polarity in America, edited by Nancy L. Herron and Diane Zabel (1995)
• Social Stratification: an Annotated Bibliography, by Graham C. Kinloch (1987)

• "SOCIAL CLASSES" (as exact subject heading without subheading)
• SOCIAL CLASSES--UNITED STATES

Any of the groups in the above categories could be considered a minority or subculture. This would depend on the relationship that the group has with the larger or dominant culture. Minorities and subcultures are considered to be outside of what can loosely be called the power structure. Terminology that describes this condition includes otherness, alterity, and marginality. A classic examination of the construction of the "other" may be found in Edward Said's Orientalis m (1978). A good overview on subcultures is provided in The Subcultures Reader, edited by Ken Gelder and Sarah Thornton (1996), and another survey work is Out There: Marginalization and Contermporary Cultures, by Russell Ferguson et al. (1990).

• Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, edited by Ellis Cashmore. 4th ed. (1996); entry on Minorities
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entry on Subculture
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); entry on Subcultures
• Ethnic Relations: a Cross-cultural Encyclopedia, by David Levinson (1994); entries on Middleman minorities; Minority
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entries on Counterculture; Minority; Orientalism; Other; Subculture; Style
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entries on Middleman minorities; Minority and minority groups; Model minorities; Subculture and counterculture
• International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, edited by William Bright (1992); entry on Minorities and sociolinguistics
• A Critical Dictionary of Sociology, by Raymond Boudon and Francois Bourricaud; selected and translated by Peter Hamilton (1989); entry on Minorities
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Minorities

• "MINORITIES" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
  Used for "general works on racial, religious, ethnic, or other minority groups... Theoretical works on the concept of groups of people who are bound together by common ties of ancestry and culture are entered under ETHNIC GROUPS. Works on the subjective s ense of belonging to an individual ethnic group are entered under ETHNICITY" (LCSH)
• MINORITIES--UNITED STATES
• MARGINALITY, SOCIAL--HISTORY--20TH CENTURY
• MARGINALITY, SOCIAL--UNITED STATES
• "SUBCULTURE" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
• SUBCULTURE--UNITED STATES

This guide is devoted to the study of cultural heritage in its plural form. On this view, the United States is understood as a "mosaic" of various and diverse cultures, as opposed to the single monolithic culture that results from the "melting p ot" or assimilation model. The concepts of pluralism and multiculturalism both reflect the heterogeneous nature of the American society. Pluralism tends to focus on differences within the whole, while multiculturalism emphasizes the indivi dual groups that make up the whole. The term multiculturalism is also used to refer to strategies and measures intended to promote diversity. A recent survey of the American cultural landscape is Cultural Diversity in the United States, ed ited by Larry L. Naylor (1997).

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entry on Multiculturalism
• Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations, edited by Ellis Cashmore. 4th ed. (1996); entry on Pluralism
• Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer (1996); entry on Plural society
• The Social Science Encyclopedia, edited by Adam Kuper and Jessica Kuper. 2nd ed. (1996); entry on Plural society
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entries on Cultural pluralism; Multiculturalism
• Ethnic Relations: a Cross-cultural Encyclopedia, by David Levinson (1994); entry on Pluralism
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994); entry on Multiculturalism
• Survey of Social Science. Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1994); entry on Pluralism versus assimilation
• International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, edited by William Bright (1992); entry on Multilingualism and multiculturalism
• Dictionary of Anthropology, by Charlotte Seymour-Smith (1986); entry on Plural society; Pluralism
• Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Stephan Thernstrom (1980); thematic essays on Pluralism
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Pluralism

• American Ethnic Groups and the Revival of Cultural Pluralism: Evaluative Sourcebook for the 1970's, by Jack F. Kinton. 4th ed. (1974)

• BICULTURALISM
• "MULTICULTURALISM" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
  Used for "works on policies or programs that foster the preservation of different cultural identities, including customs, languages, and beliefs, within a unified society such as a state or nation" (LCSH)
• MULTICULTURALISM--UNITED STATES
• PLURALISM (SOCIAL SCIENCES)
  Used for "works on the condition in which numerous distinct ethnic, religious, or cultural groups coexist within one society" (LCSH)
• PLURALISM (SOCIAL SCIENCES)--UNITED STATES

The following reference sources are compendiums that provide general coverage for many different cultural groups within the United States. There are also numerous reference works that treat particular groups of people.

• Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Judy Galens, Anna Sheets and Robyn V. Young (1995)
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); Part V: Ethnic and racial subcultures; Part VI: Regionalism and regional subcultures
• Multiculturalism in the United States: a Comparative Guide to Acculturation and Ethnicity, edited by John D. Buenker and Lorman A. Ratner (1992)
• Encyclopedia of World Cultures, edited by David Levinson (1991-1996); v.1 North America
• The Immigrant Experience: an Annotated Bibliography, by Paul D. Mageli (1991)
• Demography of Racial and Ethnic Minorities in the United States: an Annotated Bibliography with a Review Essay, by Jamshid A. Momeni (1984)
• Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Stephan Thernstrom (1980)
• A Comprehensive Bibliography for the Study of American Minorities, by Wayne Charles Miller (1976)

• Search under subject headings beginning with or including the names of specific groups

To explore American cultural heritages one needs to be able to access information about it. This information, moreover, is not only of the type found in libraries and archives, but consists of any way in which cultural heritages are manifested. Infor mation in this sense becomes a physical conduit through which things are represented. The ways in which culture is represented is the means by which cultural heritage can be conveyed. In other words, what we know about cultural heritage is obtained by m eans of the representations that have been made of it. The form that these representations can take are many and varied, including objects, texts, events and behaviors.

This is the view that has been presented by Michael Buckland:

...knowledge can be represented in various ways: as text, as images, as records, as discourse. The physical representation of ideas, knowledge, beliefs, and opinions can be viewed as a translation or representation from something intangible to someth ing tangible, from knowledge to recorded knowledge. If we chose to be rigorous, we would have to insist that recorded knowledge is not strictly knowledge at all, any more than a drawing of a cat is a cat. Recorded knowledge would be more accurately call ed a representation of knowledge, an information-as-thing. (Information and Information Systems, by Michael Buckland (1991) p.40-41)

The concept of intellectual access concerns the informational representation of things. Do the representations accurately reflect what they're supposed to be representing? What exactly is being represented? And more importantly, do the repres entations elicit the appropriate or intended response from those receiving them; that is, how are they being interpreted? If there is not some kind of meeting of the minds regarding a representation, then intellectual access has not been achieved.

Physical access, as the phrase implies, concerns whether people can actually get hold of the information they need or desire. In general, the control and delivery of information is a function of power relations. There may be diverse and confli cting agenda that influence whether or not something should be made accessible. Barriers to physical access are not necessarily immediate and direct, but can also be indirect, as are economic impediments.

In the following two sections, some of the issues that have arisen with regard to the intellectual and physical access to cultural heritages will be outlined. These include the ways in which people construct their identities; the creation and transmis sion of cultural heritage by institutions; stereotypes, bias, and counter strategies in the media; questions of property rights and censorship; the role of economic interests such as corporate philanthropy and tourism; the impact of technological changes; and public policy for the arts, education, and communication.

According to Stuart Hall, a leading figure in the field of cultural studies, "culture is a system of representations." In his view representations create or constitute meaning and not do merely obtain meaning in virtue of their correspo ndence with reality. He even goes so far as to say that "reality does not exist outside the process of representation." In other words, what we take to be culture is a function of the representations produced by ourselves and others, and is further depe ndent on the context in which these representations are interpreted. A good introduction to this topic may be found in a videotaped lecture by Hall (from which the above quotes were taken) and in Chapter 1 of a textbook that he has edited.

• Representation & the Media [videorecording], directed and produced by Sut Jhally (1997)
• Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices, edited by Stuart Hall (1997)

A question that can be asked then is how do people represent culture, both their own and of others? Some of the ways and issues relating to them are outlined in the next sections.

Much of cultural representation has to do with the construction of identity, either through the strategy of self-determined identity or by the imposing or making a claim of identity on other people.

Groups of people are often distinguished by the particular languages that they use. Language is also used to characterize groups of people and to describe aspects of their culture. Because language plays a significant role in how groups identify themselves, one issue that has arisen is the "official English" or national language movement versus bilingualism or multilingualism. Related issues are the acceptability of so-called non-standard English dialects or idioms, in particular Black English; and of slang and other subcultural jargons.

The naming and labeling of groups has long been controversial: some people want to determine their own appellations, while others may not wish to be pigeon-holed with any kind of label at all. Certain words, when used by outsiders, can be taken as ei ther racist or sexist representations of those being described. On the other hand, these same words may have a completely acceptable usage when applied by the group members themselves. Similarly, group-specific humor can act as a badge of inclusion when used among members of the insider group; but, on the other hand, it is often inappropriate for outsiders to employ ethnic humor when there are concerns about being "politically correct."

Another issue concerns the voice with which narratives or histories are conveyed. Some feel that the most authentic depiction of a culture must be made through the voices of those within it, while others think that an objective outsider's view provide s insight as well. Certain genres or styles of narration are culturally specific, and as such are felt to be the best ones to represent that culture. See also §25 on oral history.

• The Color of Words: an Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States, compiled by Philip H. Herbst (1997)
• Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997); entries on Argot; Personal experience narrative
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Narrative
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); entries on Black English in education; Ethnography of speaking; Naming; National language/official language; Slang, sociology; Speech community
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entries on Black English; English Only movement; Ethnic and minority group names; Ethnic jokes; Ethnic slurs; Language bias
• Community Languages: a Handbook, by Barbara M. Horvath and Paul Vaughan (1991)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Feminist theories of communication; Language ideology; Narrative; Speaking, ethnography of
• Masterplots II. Nonfiction Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1989); summaries and analyses of Hunger of Memory, by Richard Rodriguez; The Names, by N. Scott Momaday; Roots, by Alex Haley
• The Ethnic I: a Sourcebook for Ethnic American Autobiography, by James Craig Holte (1988)
• Humor in America: a Research Guide to Genres and Topics, edited by Lawrence E. Mintz (1988); Chp. 8: Racial and ethnic humor
• Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, edited by Stephan Thernstrom (1980); thematic essay on Language
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Literature

• Hear My Voice: Bibliography: an Annotated Guide to Multicultural Literature from the United States, by Laurie King (1994)
• American Ethnic Literatures: Native American, African American, Chicano/Latino, and Asian American Writers and Their Backgrounds: an Annotated Bibliography, by David R. Peck (1992)
• A Comprehensive Annotated Bibliography of American Black English, by Ila Wales Brasch and Walter Milton Brasch (1974)

Introductory sources

• Cultural Difference & the Literary Text: Pluralism & the Limits of Authenticity in North American Literatures, edited by Winfried Siemerling and Katrin Schwenk (1996)
• Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, edited by Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi (1996)
• The Culture of Autobiography: Constructions of Self-Representation, edited by Robert Folkenflik (1993)
• Language Loyalties: a Source Book on the Official English Controversy, edited by James Crawford (1992)
• Ethnicity, Ethnic Identity, Language Maintenance, edited by George E. Pozzetta (1991)
• Redefining American Literary History, edited by A. LaVonne Brown Ruoff and Jerry W. Ward Jr. (1990)
• Unkind Words: Ethnic Labeling from Redskin to WASP, by Irving Lewis Allen (1990)
• The Language of Ethnic Conflict: Social Organization and Lexical Culture, by Irving Lewis Allen (1983)

• BLACK ENGLISH
• ENGLISH LANGUAGE--GOVERNMENT POLICY--UNITED STATES
• ENGLISH LANGUAGE--STANDARDIZATION
• ENGLISH-ONLY MOVEMENT
• ETHNIC GROUPS IN LITERATURE
• ETHNIC WIT AND HUMOR
• IMMIGRANTS--UNITED STATES--BIOGRAPHY
• LANGUAGE POLICY
• MINORITIES--UNITED STATES--BIOGRAPHY
• MULTILINGUALISM--UNITED STATES
• NATIVE LANGUAGE
• STANDARD LANGUAGE
• URBAN DIALECTS

The everyday practices of people are important indicators of their cultures, and artifacts relating to these practices are used as evidence by people who study material culture. Examples include food preferences, health practices, etiquette, manne rs, fashions like dress and hairstyle, and general lifestyle preferences, including living environment and taste in music. An overarching issue is the homogenization that can occur due to appropriation by marketers or the disallowal of certain practices, like wearing cornrows in the workplace.

• Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997)
• American Folklore: an Encyclopedia, edited by Jan Harold Brunvand (1996)
• Encyclopedia of North American Eating & Drinking Traditions, Customs & Rituals, by Kathlyn Gay and Martin K. Gay (1996)
• Latitudes & Attitudes: an Atlas of American Tastes, Trends, Politics, and Passions: from Abilene, Texas to Zanesville, Ohio, by Michael Weiss (1994)
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essays on Clothing and personal adornment; Foodways; Manners and etiquette
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Clothing; Food
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Fashion
• See also sources in sections on Material Culture and Popular Culture

• Fashion and Costume in American Popular Culture: a Reference Guide, by Valerie Burnham Oliver (1996)
• Ethnic Variation in Leisure and Recreation Interests, by Edward J. Jepson Jr. and David W. Marcouiller. CPL Bibliography no.311 (1994)
• Melting Pot: an Annotated Bibliography and Guide to Food and Nutrition Information for Ethnic Groups in America, by Jacqueline M. Newman (1993)
• Ethnicity and Recreation: a Bibliography of Related Research, by Paul H. Gobster (1992)
• Cultural Diversity and Health Beliefs: a Bibliography, compiled by Eileen Heaser (1990)

• Food and Culture in America: a Nutrition Handbook, by Pamela Goyan Kittler and Kathryn P. Sucher (1998)
• Culture of Fashion: a New History of Fashionable Dress, by Christopher Breward (1995)
• Dress codes: Meanings and Messages in American Culture, by Ruth P. Rubinstein (1995)
• We Gather Together: Food and Festival in American Life, edited by Theodore C. Humphrey and Lin T. Humphrey (1988)
• Ethnic and Regional Foodways in the United States: the Performance of Group Identity, edited by Linda Keller Brown and Kay Mussell (1984)
• Subcultures: the Meaning of Style, by Dick Hebdige (1979)

• FOOD HABITS--UNITED STATES
• COSTUME--UNITED STATES. See also narrower terms listed under COSTUME
• MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. See also narrower terms listed under MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
• FASHION--UNITED STATES

Unlike theatrical performances, public performances are group-oriented activities, which are meant to form a sense of cohesiveness and hence identity through people's participation in them. They include the celebration of holidays, rituals associa ted with important events, festivals, parades, and other organized group events. Interpreting the conventional or symbolic elements of these activities is a part of understanding this manner of representation.

• Holiday Symbols, edited by Sue Ellen Thompson (1998)
• Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997); entries on Feast; Festival; Parade; Procession; Ritual
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entries on Feasts and festivals; Initiation rites; Ritual; Symbolic anthropology
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entry on Holidays and festivals
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essay on Parades, holidays, and public rituals
• The Folklore of American Holidays, edited by Hennig Cohen and Tristram Potter Coffin. 2nd ed. (1991)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Festival; Ritual; Spectacle
• Festivals Sourcebook: a Reference Guide to Fairs, Festivals, and Celebrations, edited by Paul Wasserman. 2nd. ed. (1984)
• A Guide to Fairs and Festivals in the United States, by Frances Shemanski (1984)
• Celebrations: the Complete Book of American Holidays, by Robert J. Myers (1972)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Ritual

• Administrative Rituals, Rites, and Ceremonies: a Selected Bibliography, by Anthony G. White. Public Administration Series Bibliography no. 2767 (1989)
• Research in Ritual Studies: a Programmatic Essay and Bibliography, by Ronald L. Grimes (1985)

• The Order of Rituals: the Interpretation of Everyday Life, by Hans-Georg Soeffner (1997)
• Celebrations of Identity: Multiple Voices in American Ritual Performance, edited by Pamela R. Frese (1993)
• Dominant Symbols in Popular Culture, edited by Ray B. Browne, Marshall W. Fishwick, and Kevin O. Browne (1990)
• Rite, Drama, Festival, Spectacle: Rehearsals Toward a Theory of Cultural Performance, edited by John J. MacAloon (1984)

• HOLIDAYS---UNITED STATES
• FESTIVALS--UNITED STATES
• RITES AND CEREMONIES--UNITED STATES
• SYMBOLIC ANTHROPOLOGY

Although groups of people may seek the self-determination of their identities and cultures through individual practices, there are institutional structures that also contribute to the construction of their cultures and heritages. Sometimes particu lar groups form their own institutional mechanisms, but often this kind of representation is carried out or directed by people outside of the culture in question. The principal conflict is how to balance the interests of a dominant culture with those of a minority or subculture.

Anthropological museums have been representing cultures since the nineteenth century, and more recently a critique of this endeavor has become an important subject in the scholarly literature. Topics of inquiry include what should be collected and exhibited, how it should be exhibited, accompanying text and other interpretative descriptions, the noncontextual condition of exhibitions, and the role of people who are members of the cultures being displayed. These concerns also apply to other types of museums and to historic sites. Some other types of issues relating to museums are ownership and the protection of cultural property (see §27 below).

• The Museum: a Reference Guide, edited by Michael Steven Shapiro (1990)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Museum

• A Bibliography for History, History Curatorship, and Museums, by Gaynor Kavanagh (1996)
• Keyguide to Information Sources in Museum Studies, by Peter Woodhead and Geoffrey Stansfield. 2nd ed. (1994)
• Living History Museums: a Bibliography, by Jeffrey M. Lambert. Architecture Series Bibliographies no.1702 (1986)

• Theorizing Museums: Representing Identity and Diversity in a Changing World, edited by Sharon Macdonald and Gordon Fyfe (1996)
• Thinking about Exhibitions, edited by Reesa Greenberg, Bruce W. Ferguson, and Sandy Nairne (1996)
• Museum Culture: Histories, Discourses, Spectacles, edited by Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff (1994)
• Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the Post-modern World, by Kevin Walsh (1992)
• Exhibiting Cultures: the Poetics and Politics of Museum Display, edited by Ivan Karp and Steven D. Lavine (1991)
• Heritage Interpretation, edited by David L Uzzell (1989)
• Museums, the Public and Anthropology: a Study in the Anthropology of Anthropology, by Michael Ames (1986)

• HISTORIC SITES--UNITED STATES
• INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES
• MUSEUMS--EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS
• MUSEUMS--SOCIAL ASPECTS
• MUSEUMS--UNITED STATES

Much like museums, libraries and archives represent cultures by collecting and making available texts and documents by and about people and their contributions to society. Collection development policies determine what materials will be acquired. If, for instance, publications about a particular group are not purchased, then that group will not be represented in the library's collection. Once materials are acquired, the library then attempts to make them accessible through cataloging and classif ication procedures. This is essentially the categorization and labeling of the materials, and by and large, it is a process that must utilize the subjectivity of verbal language. (See concerns in §14 and also refer to §4 above.) At issue is whether both collection development and cataloging should strive to be universal in scope and coverage. Can this be achieved through standardization or must the full multiplicity of all cultures be accommodated?

• Encyclopedia of Library History, edited by Wayne A. Wiegand and Donald G. Davis, Jr. (1994); entries on Catalogs and cataloging; Collection development; Classification; Multicultural societies and ethnic minorities, services to; Library of Congress subject headings
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Library
• Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, edited by Allen Kent and Harold Lancour (1968- ); entries on Catalogs and cataloging; Selection of materials; Library of Congress subject headings

• History of Libraries in the Western World, by Michael H. Harris. 4th ed. (1995)
• Diversity and Multiculturalism in Libraries, edited by Katherine Hoover Hill (1994)
• Racial and Ethnic Diversity in Academic Libraries: Multicultural Issues, edited by Deborah A. Curry, Susan Griswold Blandy, Lynne M. Martin; also published as Reference Librarian v.45-46 (1994)
• Prejudices and Antipathies: a Tract on the LC Subject Heads Concerning People, by Sanford Berman (1993)
• Multicultural Librarianship: an International Handbook, edited by Marie F. Zielinska with Francis T. Kirkwood (1992)
• Library of Congress Subject Headings: Philosophy, Practice and Prospects, by William E. Studwell (1990)
• Gay and Lesbian Library Service, edited by Cal Gough and Ellen Greenblatt (1990)
• Latino Librarianship: a Handbook for Professionals, edited by Salvador Guerena (1990)
• Women Online: Research in Women's Studies Using Online Databases, edited by Steven D. Atkinson and Judith Hudson (1990)
• Subject Cataloging: Critiques and Innovations, edited by Sanford Berman (1984)
• Cataloging and Classification of Non-western Materials: Concerns, Issues and Practices, edited by Mohammed M. Aman (1980)
• Black Literature Resources: Analysis and Organization, by Doris H. Clack (1975)
• Reader in American Library History, edited by Michael H. Harris (1971)

• BOOK SELECTION
• COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT (LIBRARIES)--UNITED STATES
• LIBRARIES AND GAYS
• LIBRARIES AND MINORITIES
• SUBJECT CATALOGING--UNITED STATES
• SUBJECT HEADINGS--AFRO-AMERICANS
• SUBJECT HEADINGS--ASIAN AMERICANS
• SUBJECT HEADINGS--WOMEN

One of the main functions of education is to perpetuate culture through the transmission of knowledge, which may then be used for the further development of the culture. There are two basic tools with which this has been accomplished: through the curriculum and through instructional materials and textbooks. At the level of higher education, the issue of curriculum content is often framed in terms of the "canon debate." In this controversy the dominance of Western European writing and thought ha s been called into questioned by those who think that the contributions of other cultures should have an equally high prominence in the academy. At both the college-level and below, similar concerns are at issue for those who advocate multiculturalism in education. Here the goal is for the curriculum to mirror the diversity of the culture at large. The implication is that the heritage of other cultures will be lost if not presented to those being enculturated.

The controversy over textbook content deals with both what is included and excluded, and with how it is presented. For example, the "Dick and Jane" of reading primers are no longer strictly white, middle-class children, though subtler forms of stereot yping are still thought to be problematic. Textbooks are a significant way in which culture gets transmitted, making the kind of images and information presented influential in the development of a cultural identity and heritage. Decisions about textboo k content is a complex process because what is suitable and desirable for some constituencies may not be for others. Who should make these decisions and on what basis is an open question.

Other issues are bilingual and multilingual education and the acceptability of non-standard English in the classroom. Refer to §14 above for treatment of these issues in a larger context.

• Multiculturalism in Academe: a Source Book, by Libby V. Morris, Sammy Parker (1996)
• Multiculturalism in the College Curriculum: a Handbook of Strategies and Resources for Faculty, by Marily Lutzker (1995)
• The International Encyclopedia of Education, edited by Torsten Husen and T. Neville Postlethwaite. 2nd ed. (1994); entries on Curriculum; Education as cultural acquisition and transmission; Gender roles; Language in education, changing view of; Multicultural education; Minorities and immigrant children, curriculum for; Postmodernism and education; Textbooks; Socialization; Writing and composition instruction; as well as references to "culture" in the index
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entry on Multicultural education
• A Critical Dictionary of Educational Concepts: an Appraisal of Selected Ideas and Issues in Educational Theory and Practice, by Robin Barrow and Geoffrey Milburn. 2nd ed. (1990)
• Handbook of Educational Ideas and Practices, edited by Noel Entwistle (1990)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Education; Literary canon; Textbook

• The New Press Guide to Multicultural Resources for Young Readers, edited by Daphne Muse (1997)
• The Multicultural Education Debate in the University: a Bibliography, by compiled by Joan Nordquist (1992)
• Education: a Guide to Reference and Information Sources, by Lois J. Buttlar (1989)
• Textbooks in School and Society: an Annotated Bibliography and Guide to Research, by Arthur Woodward, David L. Elliott, Kathleen Carter Nagel (1988)
• American Education: a Guide to Information Sources, by Richard G. Durnin (1982)
• American Educational History: a Guide to Information Sources, by Michael W. Sedlak and Timothy Walch (1981)
• Revising State and Local History Books, by James W. Loewen. Public Administration Series Bibliography no.434 (1980)

• The Opening of the American Mind: Canons, Culture, and History, by Lawrence W. Levine (1996)
• Transforming Curriculum for a Culturally Diverse Society, edited by Etta R. Hollins (1996)
• Campus Wars: Multiculturalism and the Politics of Difference, edited by John Arthur and Amy Shapiro (1995)
• Race, Identity, and Representation in Education, edited and with an introduction by Cameron McCarthy and Warren Crichlow (1993)
• What Johnny Shouldn't Read: Textbook Censorship in America, by Joan Delfattore (1993)
• Battle of the Books: the Curriculum Debate in American, by James Atlas (1992)
• Politics of the Textbook, edited by Michael W. Apple and Linda K. Christian-Smith (1991)
• Ideology and Curriculum, by Michael W. Apple. 2nd ed. (1990)
• Censorship: Evidence of Bias in our Children's Textbooks, by Paul Vitz (1986)
• Reading into Racism: Bias in Children's Literature and Learning Materials, by Gillian Klein (1985)

• CULTURE CONFLICT--UNITED STATES
• CURRICULUM PLANNING--SOCIAL ASPECTS
• EDUCATION, HIGHER--POLITICAL ASPECTS--UNITED STATES
• EDUCATION, HIGHER--UNITED STATES--PHILOSOPHY
• INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION--UNITED STATES
• LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION--UNITED STATES
• MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION--UNITED STATES
• NATIVE LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION--UNITED STATES
• POLITICAL CORRECTNESS--UNITED STATES
• POSTMODERNISM AND EDUCATION
• RACISM IN TEXTBOOKS
• SEXISM IN EDUCATION
• SEXISM IN TEXTBOOKS
• TEXTBOOKS--CENSORSHIP

There are various types of organizations and associations that contribute to the sense of community and identity formation. These are most often established by members of the cultural group to which the organization is dedicated and may be closed to outsiders. They can serve as outlets for culturally oriented activities and often have a goal of perpetuating heritage through these activities.

• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Voluntary associations
• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entries on Mutual aid societies and organizations; Social organization
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essays on Fraternal organizations; Urban cultural institutions; Women's organizations
• American Community Organizations: a Historical Dictionary, edited by Patricia Mooney Melvin (1986)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entries on Social institutions; Voluntary associations

• Community Organization: Monographs, by Mary Vance. Public Administration Series Bibliography no.2365 (1988)

• Cultural Centers of Color: Report on a National Survey, by Elinor Bowles (1994)

• SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS--UNITED STATES
• COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION--UNITED STATES
• ASSOCIATIONS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC.--UNITED STATES

It is said that the media merely reflect who we are, but it is also recognized that what we think of ourselves and what we become is highly influenced by what we perceive via various forms of media. Either way, media are a powerful means of cultur al creation and/or transmission.

Mass media can refer to any format that is received by a mass audience. It is most commonly used, however, to refer to television, radio, motion pictures and videos, recorded music, and printed matter with a very large readership. A long-standing issue has been the presentation of stereotypes and bias in the media that can distort our views about ourselves and others. A more current mode of inquiry has focused on the role of the viewer or reader in constructing meaningful content for media based on particular ideologies or worldviews. The interpretation of media content is thus dependent on the relationship between originator and receiver. To overcome the disjunct between mainstream media created by the dominant culture and its subcultural aud iences, many different groups have begun to develop media that represent to their own cultures in a more meaningful way.

• Dictionary of Media Literacy, by Art Silverblatt and Ellen M. Enright Eliceiri (1997)
• The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, edited by R.E. Asher (1994); entry on Media language and communication
• Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, by Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, and John Fiske. 2nd ed. (1994)
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entry on Mass media research
• Mediating History: the MAP Guide to Independent Video by and about African American, Asian American, Latino, and Native American People, edited by Barbara Abrash and Catherine Egan (1992)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Mass media effects; Minorities in the media; Minority media
• Ethnic and Racial Images in American Film and Television: Historical Essays and Bibliography, by Allen L. Woll and Randall M. Miller (1987)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Communication, mass

• Mass Communications Research Resources: an Annotated Guide, edited by Christopher H. Sterling, James K. Bracken, and Susan M. Hill (1998)
• Communication and the Mass Media: a Guide to the Reference Literature, by Eleanor S. Block and James K. Bracken (1991)
• Mass Media Bibliography: an Annotated Guide to Books and Journals for Research and Reference, by Eleanor Blum and Frances Goins Wilhoit. 3rd ed. (1990)
• Sex Role Stereotyping in the Mass Media: an Annotated Bibliography, by Leslie J. Friedman (1977)

• Media and Cultural Regulation, edited by Kenneth Thompson (1997)
• The Media in Black and White, edited by Everette E. Dennis and Edward C. Pease (1997); also published as Media Studies Journal, v.8, Summer 1994
• Images that Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media, edited by Paul Martin Lester (1996)
• Spaces of Identity: Global Media, Electronic Landscapes, and Cultural Boundaries, by David Morely and Kevin Robins (1995)
• Hollywood as Mirror: Changing Views of "Outsiders" and "Enemies: in American Movies, edited by Robert Brent Toplin (1993)
• Interpreting Audiences: the Ethnography of Media Consumption, by Shaun Moores (1993)
• Unequal Picture: Black, Hispanic, Asian and Native American Characters on Television, by Sally Steenland (1989)

• MASS MEDIA AND CULTURE--UNITED STATES
• MASS MEDIA AND MINORITIES--UNITED STATES
• MASS MEDIA AND RACE RELATIONS--UNITED STATES
• MASS MEDIA--OBJECTIVITY
• MASS MEDIA--SOCIAL ASPECTS--UNITED STATES
• SEX ROLE IN MASS MEDIA
• STEREOTYPE (PSYCHOLOGY) IN LITERATURE
• STEREOTYPE (PSYCHOLOGY) IN MASS MEDIA
• See also headings for various media formats

According to Sally Miller, "The press is the best primary source for an understanding of the world of non-English speaking groups in the United States, their expectations and concerns, their background and evolution as individual communities." ( The Ethnic Press in the United States, edited by Sally M. Miller (1987) p.xii) It is through this so-called ethnic press that many cultural groups have been able to express themselves in their own voice, not to mention in their own languages; and as such it has functioned as a means of preserving many cultural heritages. Another issue that can be explored in the news media is the degree to which "factual" representations of events pertaining to particular groups of people have been politically or id eologically motivated and perpetuated.

• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entry on Ethnic journalism
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Newspaper
• The Ethnic Press in the United States: a Historical Analysis and Handbook, edited by Sally M. Miller (1987)
• The Encyclopedia of American Journalism, by Donald Paneth (1983)

• Journalism a Guide to the Reference Literature, by Jo A. Cates (1997)
• Ethnic Periodicals in Contemporary America: an Annotated Guide, compiled by Sandra L. Jones Ireland (1990)
• American Journalism History: an Annotated Bibliography, compiled by Wm. David Sloan (1989)

• U.S. News Coverage of Racial Minorities: a Sourcebook, 1934-1995, edited by Beverly Ann Deepe Keever, Carolyn Martindale, and Mary Ann Weston (1997)
• Outsiders in 19th-century Press History: Multicultural Perspectives, edited by Frankie Hutton and Barbara Straus Reed (1995)
• Race, Myth and the News, by Christopher P. Campbell (1995)

• ETHNIC PRESS
• JOURNALISM--OBJECTIVITY
• MINORITIES--PRESS COVERAGE--UNITED STATES
• RACE RELATIONS AND THE PRESS
• RACISM IN THE PRESS
• PRESS COVERAGE as a subheading under names of groups
• TELEVISION BROADCASTING OF NEWS--SOCIAL ASPECTS

Advertising has been a particularly successful arm of the media in fulfilling the circle of representation. Marketers create advertising that will appeal to the targeted consumers by making a presentation that the viewer will identify with. Viewe rs in turn seek to emulate the images that appeal to them. The appropriation and marketing of fashion items like athletic shoes is a prime example.

• Encyclopedia of Multiculturalism, edited by Susan Auerbach (1994); entry on Advertising
• Survey of Social Science. Economics Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1991); entry on Advertising
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Advertising; Commercials

Bibliographic sources

• American Advertising: a Reference Guide, by Emelda L. Williams and Donald W. Hendon (1988)
• Information Sources in Advertising History, edited and compiled by Richard W. Pollay (1979)
• Evaluating Advertising: a Bibliography of the Communications Process, by Benjamin Lipstein and William J. McGuire (1978)

• Buy this Book: Studies in Advertising and Consumption, edited by Mica Nava, Andrew Blake, Iain MacRury, and Barry Richards (1997)
• Culture and the Ad: Exploring Otherness in the World of Advertising, by William M. O'Barr (1994)
• Gender & Utopia in Advertising: a Critical Reader, edited by Luigi and Alessandra Manca (1994)
• Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology, and Symbolic Expression, by Andrew Wernick (1991)
• Social Communication in Advertising: Persons, Products & Images of Well Being, edited by William Leiss, Stephen Kline, Sut Jhally. 2nd ed. (1990)
• The Language of Advertising, by Torben Vestergaard and Kim Schroder (1985)
• Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising, by Judith Williamson (1984)

• ADVERTISING--SOCIAL ASPECTS--UNITED STATES
• SEX ROLE IN ADVERTISING
• SYMBOLISM IN ADVERTISING

Although historical inquiry attempts to represent factual events accurately and objectively, this endeavor can be impacted by the subjectivity of the language used to convey the factual information, the kind of evidence available, and which aspects of history get selected for coverage.

Historiography is literally about the writing of history. The way in which historians have written about history -- the methodologies used, paradigms invoked, and sources consulted -- have influenced what history gets told and perpetuated. Histor iography explores the implications that this has had for our understanding of history and what we come to call our heritage.

• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entries on Cultural history; Writing culture
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); Part II: Methods and contexts
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Historiography
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, edited by Philip P. Weiner (1973); entry on Historiography
• Dictionary of Concepts in History, by Harry Ritter (1986)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entries on Historiography; History

• A Bibliography for History, History Curatorship, and Museums, by Gaynor Kavanagh (1996)
• Reference Sources in History: an Introductory Guide, by Ronald H. Fritze, Brian E. Coutts, and Louis A. Vyhnanek (1990)
• Historiography: an Annotated Bibliography of Journal Articles, Books, and Dissertations, edited by Susan K. Kinnell (1987)
• Historiography: a Bibliography, compiled and edited by Lester D. Stephens (1975)

• Companion to Historiography, edited by Michael Bentley (1997)
• Commemorations: the Politics of National Identity, edited by John R. Gillis (1994)
• Social Memory, by James Frentress and CrhisWickham (1992)
• Heritage and Challenge: the History and Theory of History, by Paul K. Conklin and Roland N. Stromberg (1989)
• History and Ethnicity, edited by Elizabeth Tonkin, Maryon McDonald, and Malcolm Chapman (1989)

• ETHNOHISTORY
• HISTORIOGRAPHY--UNITED STATES
• MEMORY--SOCIAL ASPECTS

Oral history is history related by its participants, usually facilitated by an interviewer. Its use has been advocated because it is a means of obtaining a more direct and immediate version of history, though it can still be mediated by the questi ons or topics asked by the oral historian. It has sometimes been criticized for concentrating on the elite or "movers and shakers" of society. In this regard oral history contrasts with the personal experience narrative in §4 above.

• Folklore: an Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art, edited by Thomas A. Green (1997); entry History, oral
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essay on Oral history
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Oral history

• Oral History: a Reference Guide and Annotated Bibliography, by Patricia Pate Havlice (1985)
• Bibliography on Oral History, compiled by Manfred Waserman (1975)

• Oral History: an Interdisciplinary Reader, edited by David K. Dunaway and Willa K. Baum. 2nd ed. (1996)

• ORAL HISTORY

Those artifacts of a culture that get preserved help determine what kind of history can be told about that culture. Historic preservation is the purposeful effort to save and maintain important cultural artifacts, be they buildings, sites, or obje cts. The movement began as a way to promote national identity and is also referred to as cultural resources management or as the heritage industry.

• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Cultural resources management
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essay on National parks and preservation
• A Handbook on Historic Preservation Law, edited by Christopher J. Duerksen (1983)

• A Bibliography on Historical Organization Practices, edited by Frederick L. Rath, Jr. and Merrilyn Rogers O'Connell (1975)
• Historic Preservation Resources, compiled by Elinor R. Snow (1994)
• Historic Preservation: a Guide to Information Sources, by Arnold L. Markowitz (1980)

• Keeping Time: the History and Theory of Preservation in America, by William J. Murtagh (1997)
• Historic Preservation: Collective Memory and Historical Identity, by Diane Barthel (1996)
• Historical and Philosophical Issues in the Conservation of Cultural Heritage, edited by Nicholas Stanley Price, M. Kirby, Jr., and Alessandra Melucco Vaccaro (1996)
• Cultural Conservation: the Protection of Cultural Heritage in the United States, a study by the American Folklife Center (1983)

• HISTORIC BUILDINGS--UNITED STATES--CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION
• HISTORIC SITES--UNITED STATES--CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION
• HISTORIC PRESERVATION
• See also narrower terms under HISTORIC SITES

In order to access cultural heritages, we need to obtain information about them, and this is provided by the various ways in which the cultures come to be represented. Once these representations have been elicited -- as through language , personal and public practices, institutional constructs, the media, or historical conveyance -- there is still a question of how accessible these aspects are in a practical and tangible sense. For instance, if a book is written about a particular cultu re, but it is not published; then it is intellectually accessible in an abstract way (at least to the author), but it is not accessible in a physical sense to the general public. The control and delivery of cultural representations is a question of power relations. Though the dominant culture has a position a greater power and is better able to regulate according to its interests, subcultures can also develop strategies such as the use of coded insider communication to employ a different kind of control . Issues of control and delivery can be complex due to the present-day elusiveness of power, which no longer has a central and identifiable locus.

Culture heritages issues that are legal in nature concern cultural property rights, intellectual property rights or copyright, and censorship. One controversy is over the ownership and repatriation of artistic treasures, such as the Elgin Marbles, which are instrumental for promoting national pride and identity. Another is the claim to more sacred objects, such as ancestral bones that are also desired as scientific artifacts. In copyright legislation the fair use clause has usually insured that access to information is available for educational purposes. As economic interests come to prevail, however, access to copyrighted materials can become limited for those who are unable to pay for them. A very blatant way in which access to cultural repr esentations is denied is through censorship, and the impetus to censor can come from any segment of a society. It arises when the sensibilities and tastes of one group differ from those of another.

• Censorship, edited by Lawrence Amey, Timothy L. Hall, Carl Jensen, Charles May, Richard L. Wilson, and R. Kent Rasmussen (1997)
• Free Expression and Censorship in America: an Encyclopedia, by Herbert N. Foerstel (1997)
• The Copyright Book: a Practical Guide, by William S. Strong. 4th ed. (1993)
• Survey of Social Science: Economics Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1991); entries on Goods: public vs. private; Property rights
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Censorship; Copyright; Law and communication
• Trademarks and the Arts, by William M. Borchard (1989)
• Historical Dictionary of Censorship in the United States, by Leon Hurwitz (1985)
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Property

• Intellectual Freedom and Censorship: an Annotated Bibliography, by Frank Hoffmann (1989)
• Protection of Cultural Property and Archaeological Resources: a Comprehensive Bibliography of Law-related Materials: International Law Bibliography, compiled and edited by Frank G. Houdek (1988)
• Social Science Bibliography on Property, Ownership, and Possession: 1580 Citations from Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology, and Related Disciplines, by Floyd W. Rudmin, Russell W. Belk, and Lita Furby. Public Adminstration Series Bibliography no.2294 (1987)

• Intellectual Property: Moral, Legal, and International Dilemmas, edited by Adam D. Moore (1997)
• Copyrighting Culture: the Political Economy of Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig (1996)
• The Return of Cultural Treasures, by Jeanette Greenfield. 2nd ed. (1996)
• Banned in the U.S.A.: a Reference Guide to Book Censorship in Schools and Public Libraries, by Herbert N. Foerstel (1994)
• The Ethics of Collecting Cultural Property: Whose Culture? Whose Property?, edited by Phyllis Mauch Messenger (1989)

• CENSORSHIP--UNITED STATES
• COPYRIGHT
• CULTURAL PROPERTY--REPATRIATION
• INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

Two of the many economic aspects that affect cultural heritage are philanthropy and tourism. Philanthropy is the sponsorship of projects with social or cultural value by private, non-governmental monetary contributions. Historically, philanthropy has been used by those with wealth to promote a culture that is most amenable to those in power; programs were often of a "civilizing" nature. Today philanthropy is also used to enhance social status and identity. People tend to support programs that mi rror their own interests so that the culture promoted through philanthropy may not reflect the less economically advantaged sections of society. (See also §30 for issues relating to governmental subsidies.)

Tourism is one component of the growing culture industry, in which popular culture (see §2 above) is the mainstay. In addition to being purely recreational, tourist activities are also ways for people to explore their heritages, e.g. by vi siting the Statue of Liberty. The commercialization of tourist venues and accompanying products like souvenirs has led many to question the authenticity that this kind of heritage exploration delivers.

• A Dictionary of Critical and Cultural Theory, edited by Michael Payne (1996); entry on Culture industries
• Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember (1996); entry on Tourism
• Survey of Social Science. Economics Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1991); entry on Nonprofit organizations
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entry on Tourism
• International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills (1968); entry on Philanthropy

• Social Impacts of Tourism on Host Communities: a Bibliography, by Timothy D. Schroeder. Public Adminstration Series Bibliography no.3054 (1991)
• The Recreation and Entertainment Industries: an Information Sourcebook, by Norman F. Clarie (1990)
• Public-private Partnerships: Allies for the Arts, by Leslie Anderson. Public Adminstration Series Bibliography no.2451 (1988)
• National Economic Policy and Social Choices: a World View, by Dale E. Casper. Public Administration Series Bibliography no.2105 (1987)

• Cultural Economics: the Arts, the Heritage, and the Media Industries, edited by Ruth Towse (1997)
• Economic Perspectives on Cultural Heritage, edited by Michael Hutter and Ilde Rizzo (1997)
• Production of Culture/Cultures of Production, edited by Paul du Gay (1997)
• Culture as Commodity?: the Economics of the Arts and Built Heritage in the U.K., by Bernard Casey, Rachael Dunlop, Sara Selwood (1996)
• Business and the Culture of the Enterprise Society, by John Deeks (1993)
• The Economics of Art and Culture: an American Perspective, by James Heilbrun and Charles M. Gray (1993)
• Paying the Piper: Causes and Consequences of Art Patronage, edited by Judith Huggins Balfe (1993)
• The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies, by John Urry (1990)
• Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Cultural Expressions from the Fourth World, edited by Nelson Graburn (1976)

• "ART PATRONAGE" (as exact subject heading without subheadings)
• ART PATRONAGE--UNITED STATES
• HISTORIC PRESERVATION--ECONOMIC ASPECTS
• TOURIST TRADE--UNITED STATES

Advances in technology, from the printing press to satellite links, have had a significant impact on the ways in which information can be transmitted and used. One issue has been whether technology promotes democratization by making means of disse mination more accessible or whether it creates an elitism where there are technological "haves and have-nots." Another area of exploration is the shift towards global communication made possible by various kinds of networks. The ability to cross borders and boundaries can create a more expansive access to cultural heritages, but it can also diminsh the autonomy of those cultures.

• Survey of Social Science.Sociology Series, edited by Frank N. Magill 1994); entry on Technology and social change
• Encyclopedia of American Social History, edited by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn, and Peter W. Williams (1993); essays on Communications and information processing; Technology and social change
• Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Edgar F. Borgatta and Marie L. Borgatta (1992); entry on Information society
• Survey of Social Science. Economics Series, edited by Frank N. Magill (1991); entry on Technology and technological change
• An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology, edited by Ian McNeil (1990); Chp.14: Language, writing, printing and graphic arts; Chp. 15: Information: timekeeping, computing, telecommunications and audiovisual technologies

• Technology and Values in American Civilization: a Guide to Information Sources, by Stephen H. Cutcliffe, Judith A. Mistichelli, and Christine M. Roysdon (1980)

• New Media Technology: Cultural and Commercial Perspectives, by John V. Pavlik (1996)
• The Rise of the Network Society, by Manuel Castells (1996)
• The Control Revolultion: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society, by James R. Beniger (1986)

• COMPUTERS AND CIVILIZATION
• INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY--SOCIAL ASPECTS
• TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS--SOCIAL ASPECTS
• TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION
• TELECOMMUNICATION--SOCIAL ASPECTS

Governmental funding and support of culturally oriented programs is implemented through public arts policy, education policy, information policy, and telecommunications policy. As public policy issues, these concerns can ultimately be directed by the populace, though it may often seem that either special interests or the central government are solely in control. Debates in these areas reflect the diversity and heterogeneity of various cultures and their constituents.

• International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration, edited by Jay M. Shafritz (1998)
• International Encyclopedia of Communications, edited by Erik Barnouw et al. (1989); entries on Government regulation; Telecommunications policy
• Control of Information in the United States: an Annotated Bibliography, by James R. Bennett (1987)
• The Public Policy Dictionary, by Earl R. Kruschke and Byron M. Jackson (1987)

• Books and Documents on Government Information Policy: a Selected Bibliography, by Therrin C. Dahlin. Public Administration Series Bibliography no.2997 (1990)
• Basic Literature in Policy Studies: a Comprehensive Bibliography, by Stuart S. Nagel (1984)
• Public Policy: a Guide to Information Sources, by William J. Murin, Gerald Michael Greenfield, and John D. Buenker (1981)

• America's Commitment to Culture: Government and the Arts, edited by Kevin V. Mulcahy and Margaret Jan Wyszomirski (1995)
• Conserving Culture: a New Discourse on Heritage, edited by Mary Hufford (1994)
• Multiculturalism and Public Arts Policy, by David B. Pancratz (1993)
• Culture and Democracy: Social and Ethical Issues in Public Support for the Arts and Humanities, edited by A. Buchwalter (1992)
• Public Policy and the Arts, edited by Kevin V. Mulcahy and C. Richard Swaim (1982)

Library of Congress subject headings

• ART AND STATE--UNITED STATES
• COMMUNICATION POLICY--UNITED STATES
• CULTURAL PROPERTY--PROTECTION--UNITED STATES
• EDUCATION AND STATE--UNITED STATES
• INFORMATION POLICY--UNITED STATES
• UNITED STATES--CULTURAL POLICY